Globalization of Korean Food

The world is now in the era of globalization; products, ideas, and culture are integrated and distributed world-wide. Food is a huge part of this movement. Often original recipes get changed according to the taste of foreigners. However, Korean residents and foreigners drive such changes in different directions.

The foreign residents in Korea appreciate Korean food which is already adjusted to their their taste more if they are served in Korean style at "authentic" Korean restaurants. "The image of Korean culture has significant influence on their satisfaction" [4]. For example, foreigners expected bibimbab which is popular globally to be served with different colored vegetable toppings in a hot bowl made with rock [2]. In other words, many foreigners have defined of traditional, Korean food from media and expect those qualities from modern Korean food. In the beginning of the documentary linked below, chefs from all over the world visited Korea to learn about their image of traditional Korean cuisine and add "Korean taste" to their new recipes [5]. This 40 minute long documentary (unfortunately in Korean without any subtitle) talks about new Korean food culture. It does not only discuss evolving food cuisine in Korea but also difficulties of foreigners and tourists in Korea. 

However, the younger Korean generation tend to prefer new, fusion cuisine to traditional, Korean dishes [1]. Popular Korean fusion restaurants have "temporal fusion in spatial and food related elements"[3]. The young generation appreciates restaurants designed in simple, modern style with a hint of traditional elements such as furniture and windows. Their preference to the "fusion of food-related elements" vary from traditional food just served in new style to completely fusion cuisine [3]. Probably foreigners and Korean residents are both seeking for "newer" taste. Foreigners wish to explore traditional Korean flavors and culture that they do not know of while Koreans wish to add changes to traditional Korean food that they are used too. Though two groups of people have very different taste and definition of traditional Korean food, they are the ones changing the food culture in Korea and globalizing Korean food. I wish to see how the two group would converge and create unique Korean food culture in the future.

References:

1. Kang, Hye-Jung. “A Study on Factors for the Preference and Satisfaction of the Korean Fusion Menu.” International Journal of Tourism Sciences. (2013) 37():299-323.
2. Koo, Hee Young. "Study on visual approaches for the globalization of Korean food: Focusing on food coordination and service quality." Sungshin Women's University Graduate School (2012)

3. Lee, Jihyun. Oh, Hye Kyeong. "A Study on Expression Characteristics of Indoor Spaces and Food related Elements in Fusion Korean Restaurants." 韓國食生活文化學會誌. (2008) 23(2):204-213

4. Lee, Haeng-soon. Hwang, Jin Sook. Jeon, Hye Mi. and Lee, Soo Bum. "The Effect of the Recognition of Korean Culture in Korean Restaurant on Foreign Residents in Korea" The Korea Academic Association of Culinary (2010) 16(4):64-75

5. SBS Special Documentary. [Strategy to Survive in Ten Million Tourists Era] (Jul, 2012) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bxD0U8cTZk

What’s new after the Korean War?

Korean War began in June 25th, 1950 and was continued for three years. Aftermath of the Korean War was tragic. South Korea and North Korea got separated, and the soil was devastated. People had to rebuild infrastructure from the scratch, and they starved. After the war, they ate anything that was edible. From 1950 – 1960s, the war food era came.

1950s picture of people eating pork porridge and modern budae jjigae

{ http://blog.donga.com/sunlim1102/archives/5581}

One of the most well-known war foods is budae jjigae (부대찌개). Buddae jjigae means jjigae originated from the US army. Budae jjigae originated from the US army, who came to South Korea to prevent the South Korea from being communized, in Uijeongbu. Koreans collected all the food trash from the US army and fried them with rice. In order to increase the volume of the dish, they put a lot of water and seasoned the soup with pepper paste; people called this soup pork porridge. According to the Pyunghwa newspaper released in January 7th, 1953, leftover cigarette was found in the pork porridge [2, 5, 6]. The pork porridge evolved into what we call budae jjigae.

Many original Korean cuisine became spicier after the Korean War. Kimchi is one example. Chosun started to import chili pepper powder from Japan after the war between Japan in 1590s. In 16^th century, Japanese traded with Portuguese who ruled South America where people grew chili peppers. However, Chosun people did not seasoned food with chili pepper powder or pepper paste. They started to season food in 18^th century, and their usage increased dramatically after the Korean War [1,4]. Some scholars argue that eating spicy food was a mean to express people’s stress [4].

Busan’s famous milmyun and pork gookbab

copyright 2014. Yeong-ran Ahn all rights reserved.

  

I want to introduce two dishes popular in Busan: Milmyun(밀면) and pork gookbab (돼지국밥). People say we must eat those two when we tour Busan. However, their history is rather short; refugees from Hamgyeong-buk do which is now part of North Korea invented the two during the war time. They invented milmyun as a substitute for naengmyun they often ate at Hamgyeong-buk do. People made noodles with buckwheat for the original Pyongyang naengmyun and potato starch for the original Hamheung naengmyun. However, the refugees did not have all the ingredients they needed; as a result they used flour to make noodles [4,5]. They could earn flour from the US army.

Before the late 19^th century, Koreans did not eat pork often; they mainly ate beef. Koreans started to raise pigs during the Japanese colonization. People started to consume pork, but making gookbab with beef based broth and beef was more common. However, it was impossible to buy beef during the war time. People started to use pig’s head which is the cheapest body part of a pig to make broth. [3,4] And that was the origin of pork gookbab.

References: 

1. Hyun Jung Suh. Korean History Expedition 6. Seoul: Woongjin Junior. 2006.

2. Hyunshin Do. History of Food Cooked by War. Seoul: Sisdae ui Chang. 2011. Print.

3. Joo, Youngha. Korean History on Eating Table. Seoul: Humanist, 2013. Print.

4. Joo, Youngha. The Food War, the Culture War. Seoul:Sagaejul. 2000. Print

5. Kim, Chanbyul Birth of Delicious Korean Dish. Seoul: Rockmedia. 2008. Print

6. Kyo Ik Hwang. Museum of Korean Food Culture. Seoul: Ddabi, 2011. Print.

The government controls what We eat

Ever since the Korea achieved its independence in 1845 to 1950s, Korea suffered from food shortage, especially rice. The price of rice inflated by more than 10% per year [3] To mitigate the food shortage and reduce rice consumption, the South Korean government imposed national policies to control everyday dietary of people. The government encouraged (but more like coerced) people to eat mixed rice and flour based products. As a result the eating culture has changed dramatically since 1950s. If people lived on rice and barley before 1950s, now we live on rice and flour [1]. This movement was possible because the US provided flour as humanitarian aid – flour was rare, expensive in Korea [2].

Screen shot image taken from e-Media History Museum

{http://film.ktv.go.kr/page/koreanews/korea_newskc.jsp?page=1&searchCategory=&searchText=&pageSize=5&orderBy=&orderAsc=DESC&input_sdate=&input_edate=&newsNumber=916&divpage=1}

Chosun ilbo article in August 27th, 1959 [3]

Chosun ilbo article in May 30th, 1959 [3]

Kyunghyang ilbo article in May 15th, 1963 [5]

“Eat flour for living, eat mixed rice for your health” was a slogan that the government used to encourage eating mixed rice and flour based products movement. The government advertised eating flour product as healthy way of eating. The left image is Chosun ilbo released in August 27th 1959. The article talks about the lesson about “more nutritious eating habit” the Ministry of Health and Welfare provided to the public [3,4]. Kyungsung ilbo's article is a story about an ordinary Korean family adjusting to eating flour based food frequently [5]. As the government encouraged people to eat more flour based products, local bakeries and baking factories first appeared in 1960s. Popular Gyeongju bread was invented in 1960s, too [2]. In 1960s to 1970s, Gyeongju bread was a big hit because it substituted sweet yeot and jochung. Yeot and jochung are made with rice; the government banned yeot and jochung production to save rice. Production of not only the two but also any other traditional food, like rice cake, that are made from rice were prohibited. Sugar was an alternative to yeot and jochung; however, sugar was too expensive for commoners to consume.

Governmental propaganda about eating flour based products

{http://koya.egreennews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=3582}

The South Korean government “literally” controlled the dietary life of the public. Teachers in schools checked if students have mixed rice in their lunchboxes. If any student had white rice, she was punished. Also the government made every Wednesdays and Saturdays as designated “flour based food eating days” No restaurant could serve rice on Wednesdays and Saturdays; even on other weekdays, the restaurants had to serve mixed rice that has 25% of higher amount of barley [4].

“Moreover, the import of raw materials and simple manufacturing techniques led to the development of an industrial food processing industry that enabled accelerated mass production of food at a low-price. [3]” The government supported food companies such as Samyang, Jae-il, and Nongsim to produce processed food: canned food and ramen. By end of the 1950s, processed foods and flour based food replaced fresh, local food [3].

FUN FACTS: President Jung Hee Park suggested adding chili pepper powder to Nongsim’s Sin ramen! Very first Korean ramen products were not spicy at all.

  

References:

1. Inju Suh. “The Characteristics of National Policies on Eating Culture in 1960 -1970: the Study Focused on Mixed Rice and Flour Based Food Consumption Encouragement Movement.” SNU 1999.Print.

2. Joo, Youngha. Korean History on Eating Table. Seoul: Humanist, 2013. Print.

3. Kim, Mi-hye , and Hae-kyung Chung. "The Effects of National Policies on Food Consumption Patterns in the 1950’s – the Study Focused on Articles Written Between 1950-1959." Korean journal of Food culture 24 (1): 10-22. Print.

4. Kong JW. "Honpunshik Changny-ö Undong" and the Change of Dietary Life under the Period of State-mobilization System. Econ Soc 2008;77(3):107–138. Print
5. "Flour instead of rice." Naver News Library May 1963. Web. April. 2014 <http://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1963051500329205001&editNo=6&printCount=1&publishDate=1963-05-15&officeId=00032&pageNo=5&printNo=5400&publishType=00020>

Mixed rice and flour based food consumption encouragement movement (混粉食獎勵運動) and evolution of ramen

In 1960s, the South Koreans suffered from rice shortage. In order to reduce rice consumption, the South Korean government imposed restrictions and sanctions upon Koreans’ eating culture. The government encouraged citizens to eat mixed rice instead of 100% white rice and flour based products. Also, the government financially supported food companies like Samyang, Odduki, and Nongshim. Korean style instant ramen was invented in 1970s. The video below is a clip from EdailyTV broadcast’s TV program “The secret of innovation.” It talks about the origin and evolution of ramen caused by social changes. (It is in Korean.)

Video clip from Edaily TV's "History of Korean Ramen"

{https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1n9r1HX01XQ}

Reference:

1. Edaily TV Broadcast. [The Secret of Innovation] (Nov, 2011) History of Korean Ramen https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1n9r1HX01XQ

Evolution of BIBIMBAB

Marvin Harris, an American anthropologist said that “cultural evolution has hitherto been shaped by unconscious impersonal forces.” He believed that people’s eating culture evolves according to social changes. During the transition from 19^th to 20^th century, not only “how” people ate but also “what” they ate evolved. Bibimbab is one of many Korean dishes that changed over 100 years [2]. 

Though Jeonju bibimbab is advertised as and known for the “original” bibimbab, Jeonju bibimbab is very different from the prototype of bibimbab recorded in Korean history. Also, the old recipes for bibimbab were all different. The term bibimbab first appeared in Si eui jun suh (是議全書) written in 1890s. Bibimbab in Si eui jun suh does not have sauce. Chef mixed rice with different vegetables sides and topped with meat and egg strips. Shinyoung Bang also described bibimbab in her book called Chosun food recipes (朝鮮料理製法). Shinyoung Bang’s bibimbab was close to fried rice with meat toppings and a sprinkle of pepper powder [3].

  

Image of old bibimbab restaurant in 1900s

{http://navercast.naver.com/magazine_contents.nhn?rid=1350&contents_id=50272&leafId=1350}

The modern eating style of bibimbab appeared in 20^th century when bibimbab had has become a steady selling menu at gookbab restaurants. Chefs put topped rice with vegetables, and the customers mixed them – just like what we do in nowadays. By making the customers mix rice and toppings, chefs could serve the food faster. “The consumption of beef has increased because of cattle markets” which expanded since 1920s. People started to top bibimbap with yukhoe, beef sashimi. As a result people started to season bibimbab with chili pepper paste [2,4].

 Map of local bibimbabs

copyright 2014. Yeong-ran Ahn all rights reserved.

Bibimbab was a nationwide big hit. Modernization of Chosun led to competition among bibimbab restaurants. Local restaurants invented unique, new recipes, and Jeonju bibimbab was one of them. Fried vegetables, chicken strips, and Hwanghae do’s popular dried seaweed were used in Hwanghae do Haeju bibimbab. Gyeongsang buk do Andong’s bibimbab looks like the food prepared for jesa, the Confucius ritual to commemorate ancestors; salt, sesame oil, and soy sauce were used to season bibimbab. Red-light district industry prospered in Gyeongsang nam do Jinju, and Gi-bangs served luxurious and fancy bibimbab. The rice was topped with five to six different boiled vegetables, beef sashimi, smashed clam, and dried seaweed; then Meat based broth was poured on top of it. [1, 4]. However, people started to forget local bibimbabs except for the most famous Jeonju bibimbab after the Gyeongbu express was built in 1970s. Jeonju bibimbab restaurants franchised throughout the nation and dominated the bibimbab restaurant industry. Local bibimbab restaurants could not survive in the competition. As a result modern people only remember Jeonju bibimbab [1].

References:

1. EBS DocuPrime: A Talk about Korean Food. Educational Broadcasting System, 2012.

2. Joo, Youngha. "A Study on Evolution and Discourse of BIBIMBAB" Society and History 2010. 87():5-38. Print

3. Joo, Youngha. Food Humanities. Seoul: Humanist, 2013. Print.

4. Hwang, Kyo. Empire of the Taste. Seoul: Ddabi, 2010. Print. 

Development of dining out culture

In 20^th century, Incheon was always crowded with foreigners because during those days, it was the hub of shipping trade. Also, most embassies were located at Incheon. Restaurants targeting foreigners first appeared in early 1900 [3]. Chinese restaurants like Gonghwachoon and Joonghwaru were first to open followed by Japanese restaurants [1]. Eating out at those restaurants was extravagant entertainment Japanese officials, the rich, and collaborators enjoyed. The dining out culture was new to Chosun people because most of the time they ate at home. Officials went to Nujeong to hang out with kisaeng and had dinner, but they did not pay for the meal. They paid for the kisaeng’s service [4].

Image of Myungwolgwan by Encyclopedia of Korean Culture website [2]

Bench marketing Japanese restaurants, Soonhwan Ahn who was in charge of royal court cuisine from 1901 to 1910 opened Myungwolgwan very first Chosun restaurant in September 17th, 1903. Myungwolgwan served royal court cuisine. The fact that anyone with money can try “royal food” and watch kisaeng’s court dance attracted rich Chosun commoners. Before royal court cuisine and banquet was exclusive to king; wealth could not overcome the bureaucracy. However, that tradition broke down in 20^th century. Government officials, businessmen, and Chosun commoners had private and public meetings at Myungwolgwan [2, 4].

As more Japanese officials and rich Chinese traders visited Myungwolgwan; the “royal court cuisine” catered to their tastes. For example Myungwolgwan started serving Japanese style, sea fish sashimi. Chosun people consume freshwater fish sashimi more while Japanese people preferred sea fish sashimi. They served Japanese Sukiyaji in Sinseollo and foreign fruits [1]. Though Myungwolgwan became more commercialized, people thought everything Myungwolgwan served as “Chosun cuisine” – Myungwolgwan served the “image of Chosun.”

 

Image of Chosun people eating naengmyun 

{http://idealist.egloos.com/viewer/5388848}

Besides fancy Chosun royal court cuisine restaurants, gookbab(국밥집) restaurants were very popular among commoners and laborers. Literal translation of gookbab is soup and rice; eating gookbab was quick, and easy way to have a meal. Seollungtang was a classic menu. Choo-uh tang was popular in fall while naengmyun was a hit in summer. Different types of bibimbab were first served at gookbab restaurants [3].

Another dining out place that was popular, especially among laborers were Daepotjib(대폿집). Daepotjib served mak gul li and side dishes such as bin dae duk, soondae, and mae un tang. Many laborers could drink and eat cheap after their work [3]. In 20^th century, dining out culture prospered among all social and financial classes. The dining out culture has become a "vehicle for culture and nutrition" rather than a mean for satisfying hunger [5].

FUN FACT: There is a Jjajangmyun museum in Incheon Chinatown. The museum is about the history of Gonghwachoon, one of the very first Chinese restaurants in Korean history.

Reference:

1. EBS DocuPrime: A Talk about Korean Food. Educational Broadcasting System, 2012. 
2. "Myungwolgwan." Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Web. April. 2014 
{http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Contents?contents_id=E0018335#}

3. Joo, Youngha. Korean History on Eating Table. Seoul: Humanist, 2013. Print.

4. Joo, Youngha. "The First Chosun Restaurant: Soonhwan Ahn and Myungwolgwan." 東洋學 2011. 50 (): pp.141-162 1229-3199. Print.
5. Lee, DW. “Changes in Perspectives on Eating Out Culture after Modernization in Korea.” 中央民俗學 第十七號, 2012.3: 65-99 

When did the MODERNIZATION of Korean food begin?

Hongdo Kim’s Lunch (19^th century)

김홍도의 점심 (1800년도 후반)

Yongsuk Jo’s Lunch (17^th Century)

조영석의 점심 (17^th 세기 조선)

Two paintings above were drawn by Hongdo Kim (1745 – 1806?) and Youngsuk Jo (1686 – 1761), respectively. Hongdo Kim is one of Three Great Artists during Chosun period, and he is renowned for depicting common people’s everyday life in his paintings. Yongsuk Jo is more known for drawing lives of scholar officials and yangban. Both painted a group of labor workers having lunch. In both paintings, the workers are sitting on the ground; they either hold their bowls – probably gookbab, a rice over a soup – or put the bowls on the ground. People used tables at home, but the tables they used looked like modern coffee tables. The tables were shorter than tables we use nowadays. Also Koreans enjoyed one dish meal rather than a course meal, and their menu was very simple. A bowl of rice, a bowl of soup, and a spoon or a pair of chopsticks were all they needed.

Korea-Japan trade treaty banquet painting (1883)

조일통상조약(朝日通商條約) 기념 연회도 (1883)

Eating culture in Chosun started to change as the “modernization” began. The picture above was drawn to commemorate the Korea-Japan trade treaty in 1883. This treaty was an important one for Korean traders and merchants because previous Gangwha treaty with Japan in 1786 was an unequal treaty. Though new treaty was still more favorable to the Japanese traders, its many clauses were made to protect Chosun traders. The modernization of Korea began around late 1890s when the hermit kingdom, Chosun was forced to open ports to foreign countries like Japan, German, the British Columbia, etc. Foreign traders flocked into Korea and brought sugar, wine, whisky, etc. along [1]. 

In this picture, everyone is sitting on a chair and eating at the table. Let’s take a look at the table in front of this guy in yellow gown, the second to the most right in the back row. He has wineglass, tea cup, and tea pot in front of him. He also has two or three knives and forks. Probably what they were eating is not traditional Chosun food. Foreign food and foreign eating manner were shocked Koreans because they were totally different from what and how they ate.

References:

1. EBS DocuPrime: A Talk about Korean Food. Educational Broadcasting System, 2012. 

2. Joo, Youngha. Food in Art, History behind Food. Seoul: Sagaejul, 2005. Print.

Intro.

DISCLAIMER: Most Korean dish you know may not be "traditional" Korean dish but "modern" Korean dish. 

Tteokbokki, bibimbap, galbi, and budae jjigae are popular Korean dish globally. Which one do you think is "traditional" Korean dish? Non of them are traditional Korean dish. People often associate "Korean" dish with "authentic" and "traditional" dish; however, that is not always true. Actually, most Korean dish we know and eat in everyday life were invented, developed, and modified during the 20th century. In other words, Korean cuisine also modernized. Shocking isn't it? In macroscopic point of view, changes in Korean cuisine may seem trivial compare to Japanese colonization, Korean independence from Japan, Korean War, etc. However, everyone is not a historical figure. Not everyone participated in independence movement during Japanese colonization nor everyone cooperated with Japanese. People responded to social changes, adjusted to new rules and new leaders to continue living. I think macroscopic point of view does not capture everyday life and details of people. I believe it is important to take a microscopic point of view and study "modernization of Korean food" to understand how people adjusted to and survived through dramatic, harsh situation.

In this blog, I wish to talk about "modernization" in Korean food culture during last 100 years and take a glimpse into 20th century Koreans' world.